Шпоргалки по истории языка

 

 

Sentence definitions.

Problem of definition. The German scholars to summarize all the definitions > 301 (gave up). 6 groups:

1. Log definition: s-ce – is a group of words expressing a complete thought (English Descriptive or nominative grammar, 18th c.) 2 Psychol D. (the school of the Young gram-s): s-ce- is not only a linguistic unit but also the structure of human feeling or thought. (Шахматов – Предложение – это комбинация представлений в процессе мышления.). S.Curme (an Eng. scholar): a sentence is an expression of thought or feeling by means of a word or words used in such forms and manner as to convey the meaning intended. 3. Structural D. (classical Sc Gr-r), R.Zandvoort: a s-ce is an oral or written communication made up of one or more units, each of which contains a complete utterance formed acc to a definite pattern (по определенной схеме). M.Bryant; the s-ce is a communication in words conveying a sense of completeness containing at least one independent verb with its subject. 4. Formal D. Amer Descr Gr-r) Ch. Fries: a s-ce is a word or group of words standing between the initial Capital letter and a mark of end punctuation or between two marks of end punctuation. 5. Phonetic D.(Amer.Desc Gr) M.Whitehall: an utterance ending with one of 2 intonation contours (fall>.! , rise>?) typical of the Eng. language. Mixed definitions where several features of  a s-ce are reflected. The features:- the s-ce is a syntactic unit; - the s-ce is an autonomous unit which isn’t a part of a larger syntactic structure; - the s-ce is a structurally complete unit which is based on a certain syntactic pattern or modal and contains all the component characteristics of these pattern. The s-ce doesn’t necessarily express a complete thought because in many cases it may contain the words whose lexl meaning is ambiguous and depends on the context. Ex. She did that. - the s-ce is characterized by its own purpose of utterance. It can be a statement, a ? or a command. - The s-ce as an syntactic unit is materialized in a written or oral form. Acc-ly it should be phonetically or graphically shaped. So, the s-ce is the smallest, autonomous, structurally complete syntactic unit having its own purpose of utterance and phonetically and graphically shaped.



 Category of modality of a s-ce.

The meaning of every sent is related to reality. The gram category which is used to relate the meaning of an utterance to reality is known as Modality. Naida- M indicates the psychological atmosphere of the action as reflecting the speaker’s attitude. Виноградов- М-это отношение содержания высказывания к действительности с т.зр. говорящего. Ch. Balie: “ In every s-ce there are 2 layers > dictum and modus. Dictum bears the meaning of the s-ce, what is said about the subj. Modus expresses the speaker’s attitude to what is being said. In every sent there’s obvious objective modality which indicates the sent meaning & its interrelations with reality. The most important and most universal means of expressing s-ce mod-ty is the verbal category of mood. Since every predicate in a s-ce stands in one of 3 moods the mod-ty expressed in this way is called the objective mod-ty. Objective mod-ty is subdivided into 2 groups: mod-ty of reality (indicative mood) and mod-ty of unreality (the imperative, subjunctive moods). There may appear in a s-ce lang-e forms expressing the speaker’s personal attitude. This is the 2nd kind of mod-ty > the subjective mod-ty. It is expressed by a great variety of lang-e means. There’s a spec.class-n of wrds (Modal words) expressing (un-)certainty of the speaker, supposition.  1st of all these are parenthesis. They may be single words: probably, certainly, luckily; phrases: in my opinion, to my mind, to tell the truth, to put it mildly, to be honest; parenthetical clauses: I think, I hope, I doubt, I’m afraid, as john told me and so on.  2. evaluating words- gorgeous, wonderful…( N-s. Adj-s, Adv-s);

1. Synt character > these are tag-questions; 2 Intonation - to transform a statement into supposition (rising tone). In 1 & the same sent the forms of Obj Mod-ty & Subj M. can be used simultaneously. The Obj M is obligatory forevery sent, while Subj M is optional- speaker’s choice. The means of Subj M may strengthen or weaken the meaning of Obj M (I’m sure he’s here. Probably he’s here.)

Modal Vs express diff kinds of mod-ty which shows the relations between the action and the doer. They express a peculiar kind of mod-ty which can be called potential m-ty (the action isn’t performed).

Since there are many means of expressing mod-ty in the s-ce some scholars present the category in the form of the linguistic field.






Parts of Speech. Prenormative- like in Latin 8 PSp-N, prn, participle, V, adv, prep, conj. +Ben Jonson article, + Brightland qualities (adj). His system- names (N), affirmatives (V), qualities (adj), particles (other). Class Scientif G- Sweet- gr meaning, form, function. Declinable\ indeclinable. Decl: 1)N-wrds- N proper, n-prn, n-numeral (cardinal), inf, gerund. 2)Adj-wrds- adj proper, adj-prn, adj-numeral (ordinal), prt 1 &2. 3)V-wrds- finite V, inf, gerund, prt 1& 2, Indecl: adv, prep, conj, interj. System-not consisten. Jespersen-the same principles a5 PSp- N, Adj, Prn (+numerals, pronominal adv-where, why), V(+ verbals=inf, ger,part), Partic (proper-just,too.., prep-s, conj). Structural Gr- formal analysis of formal ling unit. Meaning exluded, but form- leading/ (root- white, whiten, whiteness).. Method of nonsense wrds (take into consid the distrib-n of wrds in a sent. Method of substitution (put wrds into the positionof certain wrds). Fries- 4 wrd-classes (67%), 15 gr of function wrds(33%). Substitution diagnostic frames. Fries criticized previous but didn’t give defin of of this gram category. Transformat Gr didn’t classify PSp,preoccupied with Syntax.  Rus theory of PSp on the grounds of ideas of Scherba & Vinogradov. Notional wrds have Lex meaning & Gram meaning. LM names concrete individual features of obj, GM describes concepts & notions. a Dif  LM but one GM (a tree, a house..- ‘thingness’). Adj- GM of quality. Function wrds (prep, conj)- denote relations b\w wrds, statements. Adv express quality of a quality. Formal properties- 2 kinds- word-changing, word-building. WC affixes- not helpful in the process of class-n ? lang is analytical, WC inflections r polyfunctional & few of them. –S (Nplur, V3pSing, \posses case\), -ed (Past Ind, Pt2, WB in comp adj ‘blue-eyed’), -er (WB in adj, WB in N). WB affixes- rich in them, original (-dom, -hood, -ship), loan (Scand –by, Fr –ess, let, ee). OK 4 distrib wrds into PSp (N- tion, ness, hood, don. Adj- ous, ful, y. V- ate, ise, fy. Ly- N+ly=adj, Adj+ly=adv). Synt Functions r presupposed by the valency & combinatoric abilities of wrds. Complex interrelations b\w wrds in 1 class. a Field Approach by Zernov. Each PSp a field= a center & periphery. (Class N, Proper N, Abstr N, Material N. Pronoun cross (can perform its function), adj cross (are substan-zed, the rich). FA shows interrelations in 1 class & b\w classes.



Theories. ModE-analyt, inflextional (with cases, personal endings). Changesa reconstr of gram type into anal one. Reasons of loss of inflections? Phonetic approach (Fortunatov), the theory of young grammarians- Originally in Germ lang-es the stress of a wrd was freea understood that in the process of commun-n the root-most imp, contained LMa pronounced more energetically than other parts, stress became fixed on the root, final infl- unstressed a weakly pronounced, dropped. Logical? Contradictions- in Finish stress on the root, but 14 cases, function wrds used when inflections were in blossom. (of stones- камня род.п.). Unsatisfactory. The Theory of Substratum (comparativists). (theory of mixture of lang-es). In case of invasions- to work out means of commun-n b\w tribes. 1 lang- substratum upon which the new lang is developed. OE & Danish= Germ lang-ge group.--> same roots, dif endings (OE-wind, Dan- windr). Diff-ce of inflections- problems aweakly pronounced. Common sense of the theory- development of a lang is regulated also by politic, economic, culture life. Voc is most affected. Theory of progress (Jespersen). Loss of inflect- positive change, to clear the lang of intricate inflections. Helps to economize thinking. Put forward the # of features. 1 Gr forms in analyt l-ge are shorter. -But some analytical forms contain 3 or 4 words. 2Anal l-ge has few gr forms which burden memory-  this scarecity of gr forms causes their homonimy. 3the ways of creating gr forms are regular.- In the system of N many irregular forms of plur, Irreg V. 4 Rules governing in Syntax are regular. – The use of great # of prep is fixed. 5Article is praised. The Functional theory (Horn, Barkhudarov)- grammar isn’t easily penetrated by foreign influencea reasons of reconstr in lang itself. There are ling elements that had lost funct value & can no longer perform their functions a these elements suffered the process of phonetic reduction, dropped. In OE- N had 4 cases, in some types of declention- same inflections a prep-s began to be used, inflect-s- dropped. Contradictions- Eng has bot synt & analyt means (man’s- of a man). Common sense in each of the theories.


The Verb- Mood. . Vinogr: mood expr-s the relation of the action to reality as stated by the speaker. we can represent an action as a real fact, unreal but highly probable, very doubtful. The # of moods- disputable, fluctuates from 2 (Imp excluded) to 16. Tradit # of moods is 3. Feature- the bare infin, can be met in all 3 moods. )Go there. I insist he go there. I go there.) (1)The Ind.M. shows that the speaker represents an action as a real fact. It  represents every action as corresponding to reality. Doubts- in the Future of the Ind M the action has not been performed so it doesn’t correspond to reality. But if compare with Subj M - degree of its probability is higher. (1)I’ll come & help you. 2)I would like to come & help you). (2) The Imper M..Not all scholars (Curme) include it because it is represented by 1 form only which is homonymous to the form of bare infinitive & it has no paradigm. H.Sweet- it has its own gram.m. diff from the Ind. or Subj.M-s. Features:  it has no person, number, tense distinctions. it’s used only in 1 type of sent (imper). it has a specific modal meaning of inducement (a command, prohibition, order, request, advice, offer, invitation). The negative form is alw derived with the help of aux. ‘do’ including the V ‘to be’, if with bare inf- negat particle before it (we decided not to go there). It has an analytical construction (to address to the 3d pers). Analytical & synthetic forms. (Let me speak (anal). Speak! (synth).). (3) Subj M.- to present an action as unreal, as a supposition. Very old- in OE synthet-ly w\h of inflections areduced, coincided with the Ind M., homonymy. In early ModE- analyt forms (aux-es should/would, may/might, could). 2 tense forms- express various degrees of probability of an action. Pres Subj- in the form of likelihood, hopefulness, action refers to the Pres, Fut, chance to perform it (. If you invited me to your birthday party I would come). Past Subj- unlikelihood, imposs (perfect forms of V) (If you had invited me I should have come). 2 forms- synth=bare inf (I demand he go there), analyt- pres.subj (should would may could + inf) past (+perf.inf). 2 fields of use: contex free- simple sent to express good will (God bless you!). Cases- subj m homon to ind m.BUT unambig case- 3d pers sing in Ind m (inflex –s). aAttention to gram & lex indicators.(I know he does it. I demand he do it.) Contex bound usage- a variety of dif combinations of forms. 1) In princ clause - it’s necessary, imp, oblige a in subord cl- synth form or analyt should+inf (It is agreed that they discuss the matter right now). 2) in attributive clauses after the N-s: decision, demand, ordera synth or analyt. (My recommendation is that you take your exam in May.) The purpose- gram indic conj that, so that + may/might \ can/could + inf. (She rushed forward so that she might see everything). –conj lest & should+inf (She started running lest she should miss the train). Sequence of tenses: 1) princ & subord cl- simult action a synth form of Past Subj (She looked at me as if she were concealing smth). 2) action in subord follows action of princa in subord would+inf. 


The Verb- Voice. 2 approaches to defin. 1 V expresses the relations b\w the doer & the action (G.Gurme, H.Boutsma, Варкударов). 2. V expresses the relation b\w the subj & the obj of the action (Гордон). V is the form of the verb, which shows whether the subject and the object affected by the predicate. Obvious opposition – active (no special indicator) & pas (aux ‘to be’). Pas is represented by tense & aspect forms. (Ex- Indef, Perf, Cont pas: pres- past- future). In E 3 types of pas constr: 1) direct passive-direct obj in AVa subj in PV (was helped by..), 2) indirect pas- derived from the V wh can take non-prep obj in AV: give, ask, send…(he was asked a quest), 3 obligatory parts- sbj, pred, direct obj. No in Rus. 3) prepos passive constr- former prepos obj a sbj in passive (he was laughed at by the boys), 3 parts- sbj, predict, prepos. In Rus start with prep. Not transitivity but ability to take any kind of obj is of importance while derive passive constr. ‘to be +PrtII’ has 2 gram m- 1) passive action performed upon a thing (simple pred) 2) expresses physical\ psychic state (comp nom predict). Criteria. PV if: ‘by-phrase’; adv modif of time, manner, place; perf or cont aspect; +another V in active. PV used in E more frequently, convenient not to mention the doer, or to underline him (…by the wind). In add to PV & AV- Reflexive V. Opponents- RV used after trans v should be treated as direct obj (She washed herself and a child). Supporters in favor- peculiar gram m shows that the action is concentrated un the doer (I wash myself), в рус «-ся». A paradigm \a set of forms united by 1 gram m\ of the RV (V+ myself, himself…). a can accept the idea of 3 voices in E.


Rise of the National Eng lang. MidE period- variation of lang forms on all the levels: pronun, morph, syn and voc. Changes in the social life of the country a develop of Eng capitalist relations, consolidation of isolated areasaneed for national lang, intelligible. Dialects couldn’t perform taska urgent problem. On the base of Lon D, its leading role- polit role & geograph position of London, on the boarder line b/w Midland & Southern dialects. 14c.- Midland d prevailing in the LD, LD influential in north parts. In OE- West-Sax d -the leading, MidE- LD leading, repres-ed by writings-proclamation of Henry I. Long development, from 14c. 15c-remarkable, book printing (1438), graph innovation (Fr origin). 16c- spreading of LD, 2 spheres where Latin- church, science. Henry8 quarreled with Pope, to replace Latin by Eng, religious uprisings, a relig texts transl into Engl. Science still used Latin in 16c. Renaissance. Movements of purists- against cluttering up of Eng &Latin. End 16c- Engl penetr into science. Some Latin wrds survived. Engl penetr into social life, national lang, intelligible. 17-18cc- development, Eng Bourgeois Rev, Civil war (puritan victory, proclaim of commonwealth). Rise of ling disciplines. Early gr –in 16c, 17c-Johnson, Wallis, 18- Brightland. Infuence of Latin gr- rules of correctness. Mid 18- normative (prescriptive) gr, 2 tasks- - to clear the lang of all irregular, to fix the lang in this state (impracticable). The rules of correctness regulated according to the rules of reason. But often disguised Latin passed the laws of reason again. Orthoepy - the problem of pronunciation. In the 17с- treated by Butler and Cooper, in the 18c- Jones & Walker. Another branch of ling-cs- lexicography, task- to fix the voc of the lang in dictionaries. Earliest dict-s - bilingual- Lat-Eng, Fr-Eng. Soon- of difficult words- loans, archaic wrds, slang. 18c – first monoling dictionary (meaning). B.Johnson edited his work (+illustrations of w-usage). During the 17c- a # of disciplines- gr, orthoepy, lexicography. 18c- normalization (gram forms abused- lesser).The voc enriched by loans- Roman, Scandin, Norman. Not typical Germ lang, but Romanp-Germ.

GVS.  problems concerning its periodization, causes & directions. 1Periodization.- disputable chron frame. Martinet & Trnka-12-13cc when the lengths of vowels lost their phonemic value & began to be positionally conditioned. But no proofs of this assumption. Wyld analyzed writings of 14,15,16 c of low-educated ppl, close to phonetic spelling. a GVS 14-16c. Rastorgueva (convincing)-14-18, some spelling changes indicated the beginning. 2 Reasons- suppositions. Horn & Lehnert- caused by a peculiar way of pronun-n of vowels. Pronun in a high tone contributed to its narrower articulation. Tried to prove- referred to similar phonetic facts of the ModE. But 4 long vowels during the GVS  broke into the dipht-s (unanalyzed). Plotkin  - connected the results of the GVS 1)with the loss of the phonemic character of length of vowels and, 2)with the development of a great # of monosyl wrds in MidE which appeared after the loss of the final unstressed vowels. a appeared pairs of wrds differed only in the length of the root vowel: rod /o/- rod /open o:/. The same spelling a to overcome such ambiguous cases, the lang began to develop a new kind of opposition, not b/w long & short monopht-s, but b/w a short monopht & dipht. 3.Direction- which vowels first involved- narrowest, widest? 2 theories- push-chain’ (started with the widest a:, open o:, ?:. Every step of their narrowing pushed the neighboring vowel to a higher position in order to avoid coincidence. Vowels i:, u: (had nothing to narrow into) developed into the dipht-s ai, au.) and ‘drag-chain’ (with the 2 narrowest vowels which broke into the dipht-s. Dragged their nearest neighbours on to their now empty position.) Hard to say which theory is convincing. GVS changed system of long vowels, their quality, narrowed or developed into diphth-gs. ‘Indep’ change- no apparent phonet conditions. Affected stressed long v in any position. i:> ai, e:> i:, ?: >e:>i:, a:> e:> ei, open o:> o:> ou, o:> u:, u:> au. No regular spelling changes. Digraphs ‘ee’, ‘ei’, ‘ie’ for /e:/, ‘ea’ (in 16c) for /?:/. Merging of /e:/ and /?:/ in /I:/ made their graphical distinctions useless: meet- meat. ‘oo’ for /o:/, ‘oa’ for /open o:/- useful, indicate 2 dif sounds in ModE: ‘oo’-for /u:/, ‘oa’ –for /ou/. Length of a vowel indicated- final mute ‘e’. -produced the position of an open syllable fro the root vowel. Names and values of some letters changed- MidE A/a:/ > EmodE A /ei/. Gap b/w the spok and writ forms. Cases needed explanation. The origin of the dipht /ei/ in the wrds ‘great, break’?- Jespersen-common intermediate stage of long vowels /a:/ and /?:/- ?: >e: >i:, a: > ?: > ?:> e: > ei. It caused pronounc-n of diphth /ei|. distribution of long vowels was changed by GVS- Dipht-s /ai, ei, ou, au/ could be met in a number of positions a reason for development of homophones: plain (voc of fric)- plane (GVS).

Vocalization of ‘R’. Source of new long monopht-s and dipht-s in EmodE. The sonorant /r/ - influence upon the preceding vowel, made it more open. The cluster /er/> /ar/. Spelling reflected this phonetic change: derk> dark. The spelling ‘ear’ was adopted: heart. In some wrds, containing /er/, the change into /ar/ didn’t take place: certain, perfect. In some -the change was reflected in spelling: learn, early. In some wasn’t- clerk, sergeant. In MidE /r/ like the Rus /r/, -Johnson noticed. In EmodE /r/ occurring after a vowel, changed into the neutral /?/, which, being added to the preceding vowela dipht or a long monopht. MidEa EmodE: o+r> o:, a+r >a:, i+r> ?:, e+r> ?:, u+r> ?:, ?+r> ?, i:+r> ai?, e:+r> i?, ?: +r> i?, ??, a:+r> ??, o:+r> open o:, o:+r> u?, u:+r>au?. \r\ to make the vowel more open, Shift- narrower. (?:> e:+r>??, like in ‘bear’). In other cases voc-n was at the final stage of the Shift of long ?: ?:> e:> i:+r> i?, like in ‘fear, hear’. Contribution- appeared new dipht-s: / i?/, / u?/, /??/ and a new monopht / ?:/.

Traditions of English Orthography. For centuries the vowel and consonant sys have been affected by changes, while the rules of spelling (sp-ing) were regulated once, in the EModE period, after the Norman conquesta introduced Fr graphic traditions. 2 kinds of innovations: 1) new letters 2) new digraphs to denote vowels (v) and consonants (c). I. The new letters -all consonantal. 1) The letter [?] (in  OE to denote phonemes ([g], [?], [?’]) a replaced in ME by the letters [G] to denote the velar stop [g] and letter [Y] to denote the palatal fricative. 2) The letter ‘V’ to denote the sound [v]. The letter ‘v’ was often treated as an allograph to the letter ‘u’a variants of sp-ing of the same word: over-ouer. aanalyze the distribution of the – b\w two vowels like [v], before the following cons - [u]. 3) The letter ‘Q’, always accompanied by ‘U’-for reflecting [k] or cluster [kw] (‘quarter’). 4) The letter “Z” to denote the c [z]- used seldom, in the initial position of loans (zoo, zone), in wrds of the Eng origin the letter ‘S’ is preferable (choose, lose),5) The letter ‘K’ - sound [k] for which in OE the letter ‘C’ was used. In ME ‘C’ represented 2 sounds: [s] before front v (city), and [k] before back v (course). 6) the letter ‘J’ - the affricate [d?] in the initial position; June. For the same purpose - the letter ‘G’ (before front v – image) and the diagraph ‘dg’ (bridge). II. New digraphs - both in the system of v and c: 1) The OE letters “?” and “?” replaced by the digr “th”: OE ?is- this ME. 2) The digr ‘ch’ -for affricate [t?] (may be‘ch’ penetrated through  Fr loans as chamber, chair, where represented  [?]). 3) The sound [?] in ME repres by ‘sh’ or ‘sch’: ship. 4) ‘gh’ - to reflect the fricatives [x], [x’], spelt in OE through ‘H’, which was also used to represent the sound [h]: OE liht-light ME. But vocal-n of these fric-s in the ME it useless. 5) ‘ou’ was adopted in ME to indicate [u:]. From Fr loans like “trouble, couch” was transferred: OE ut – out ME. In the initial position the diagraph ‘ow’ was more preferable for the same purpose (explained by ornamental considerations: OE cu-cow ME. 6) To indicate the length of a v a doubling of a letter , in 2 cases: ee for [e:], oo – [o:]: OE brжth-breeth ME. 7) Starting with ME, the diagraph ‘ie’ began to be used to represent [e:]. (from Fr). First in such loans as “chief, relief”, a into native Eng, like “field” (OE felf).8) Starting with EModE , the final mute ‘e’ - indicator of a long root v: OE ham – ME hom – Early ME home. 9) In the 16c the d-ph ‘ea’ for [?:]: OE ?le- ME elch – Early ME each. Later, after GVS [e:] and [?:] had merged in [I:], their graphic distinctions lost significance. In ModE [i:] can be indicated in 5 ways: by the digr-s ‘ie’, ‘ee’, ‘ea’, ‘ei’ and with the help of the final mute ‘e’: field, feet. 10) 16c - ‘oa’ for [?:] in order to distinguish it from [o:] spelt as ‘oo’: OE rad – ME rod – Early ME road. In ModE ‘oo’ and ‘oa’ still represented 2 diff sounds. 11) In ME the letter ‘O’ - for short [u]. Thus, to shape the end of a word, the letter ‘y’ - for [I]: OE daз-ME dai, day. Digr ‘ow’ - in the final position instead the former ‘ou’: OE nu-ME nou, now. The OE cluster ‘hw’ underwent graphic metathesis in ME a spelt as ‘wh’: OE hw?t – ME what. The numerous sound changes of the Early ME period increased the gap b\w Eng sp-ing and pronunc-n. Orthography can be regulated by phon, morph, history principles.OE spell-ng based on phon pr, was correspondence b\w a phoneme & its graph present-n. In ModE such few cases- lost, let, net, lot. Morph pr –not typical for Eng, but for Rus- even reduced vowels are spelt in their full form. In ModE orth-y history pr –domin, in accor with which rules of spel-ng were conditioned by sound changes. 2 kinds of rules in ModE spell-ng- 1 those developed on the original grounds, 2 etymol rules, reflecting spell-ng of loans.

Principles of classif-n of Phras Units. Many terms for ph\u, but set expr-n- best- it stresses the specific qualities of a ph\u: stability, idiomaticity, integrity, synt indivisibility. Central problem is of criteria distinguishing them from free w-gr. Шахм и Фортун singled out- stability, idiomaticity, function & context. Criterion of stability means that components of ph\u follow each other in the definite constant order, there can be no substitution of them. Criticism- many ph\u lack absolute stability & admit wide variations. Cr of idiomaticity- based on the lack of motivation. Vinogradov singled out degrees of idiom-ty: -Ph fusion (сращение), non-motivated at all, to kick the bucket. –Ph unity, w.groups which can be perceived through the metaphor, metonym meaning, to wash one’s dirty linen in public. –Ph collocations, stable set groups which still have a clear motivation but a strictly limited voc, to shrug one’s shoulder. Criticism- no distinct boarder line can be found b\w gr 1&2, 2&3. Cr of function presupposes that ph\u are gram & styl-ly inseparable, in a sentence behave like a single synt form, He wrote it in a long run. Criticism-the same ph\u may be inseparable in 1 type of synt context & separable in another, take care- care was taken. Cr of context- ph\u have a fixed meaning (unlike free w gr). Амосова subdivided into:- phrases, -idioms. Phrases- 2member gr in which 1 of of the mem has a spec meaning dependant on the 2nd (small hours= early). Idioms  are charact-ed by idiomaticity of the whole gr (red tape). Criticism- non-variability of context doesn’t necessarily imply spec meaning of the component. Some w-gr aren’t stable, although have various degree of idiomat-ty. Many cl-ns before Kunin’s. Smith & Ball -on the basis of Rhyme, alliteration, contrast. Фортунатов &Шахматов paid attention to syntactic analisys of ph\u a structural cl was produced. Diachronic cl by Larin reflects 3 stages a unit passes on the way of becoming a phr unit- 1 a free word- group. 2 metaphorical phrase. 3 idiom. Some phr units had been found spontaneously (never been free w-g). Vinogradov’s cl is synchronic. Based on the motivation of the unit, i.e. the relationship b\w the meaning of the whole & the meaning of its component parts. The degree of motivation is correlated with the rigidity, indivisibility & semantic unity of the expr-n. a 3 types of ph\u are suggested- phr fusions, phr units, phr combinations.  Smirnitskii - the reversed V’s cl-n)- 1 traditional phrases. 2 phr combination with the faded ph units (to fall in love). 3 idioms wh have no motivation (as dead as a doornail). Kunin has many cl-ns,  the main -based upon the combination of functional, semant features: 1nominative ph\u. 2communicative ph\u-proverbs & sayings. 3ph units with combined function: -interjectional ph units, -modal ph units (as sure as I’m sitting here). Acc to the character: -expression with a variable verbal or nominal elements (not to stir\lift a finger), - expression with variable pronominal element (to pull sb’s leg), - expr which combines 2 types of variability (to give s.o(nom) a piece of one’s mind (pronom). Алёхина-  ph\u divided into14 core patterns. Most productive- 1N+N (foot-force), 2 Adj+N (heavy father), 3 N+Adj (to bleed white), 4 Npossessive case+ N (the devil’s delight), 5V+N (kick the bucket), 6 Prep+N, 7 N+prep+N (the king-of birds-eagle), 8 Adv+Adj (so so), 9 Adj+Adj (pretty good), 10 V+Adj (to go wild).  Each of these patters has certain derivational ability.

Affixation & Compounding. Process of making wrds. The most productive ways of w-building. Aff-n –formation of wrds by adding derivational af-s to dif types of stems. 2 degrees- if wrd is formed by the application of 1 deriv af- 1st degree, if 2 stages of coining- 2nd(haste-hasty- hastily). Subdiv into suffixation, prefixation. In ModE suf-n is mostly character of N and adj formation, pref-n-of V. Suf-es- more imp in different-ing PSp. S-x- morpheme that follows a stem. 1Acc to what PSp added: -N-forming (ment, eer, er), -adj-froming (nt, full), -Verbal (fy), -Adv-f (ly, wards), Numeral (teen, ty, fold). 2Acc to what kind of stem added: -diverbal (reader, able, ing), -dinominal (to N, handful, girlish, beautiful), -diadject (bluish, ly). Acc to stylistic reference: -neutral, occur in wrds of dif lex-styl layers,(ish, dom), -styl colored, terms (asteroid, diminutive –birdy,, aunty). 3Acc to productivity: -Productive (for prod neologisms, ness,ly), -non-prod (no neologisms, ous), -dead (origin may be defined by means of diachron analys, little-very litt). Pr-x- affix that precedes the stem. Acc to stem: -diverbal (remake), -dinominal (unbutton), -diparticipial (unknown). Acc to semantic: -negative (un, non, in), -reversetive (dis, un), -pejorative (misinform, pseudoscientific), -pref of time, order (pre-war, post-war), -p. of repetition (re-),- of locative meaning (super, trans, sub). Acc to styl reference: -neutral (outlive, outdo), -colored, mostly bookish (supermodern, by-lingual). Acc to degree of produc-ty: -produc (aneol-sms, re, post, super), -non-prod (dis, mis, fore), -dead (make reveal through etimol analysis, appear, accept). Pref & suf may have dif lex-sem categories, polysemantic (stony, bushy- dif meanings, but of qualityapolysemy). Synonymy of aff: er- reflects a more general action, ist-doer of an action in the sphere of politivs. Er, eer- variants (1-neutral, 2-negative connot). Acc to origin:-native (dom, hood), -foreign (Fr, Latin). Many modern native-from OE aff. Derivat & Funct aff. Similarities-they are often homonymous. Funct aff serve to convey gram m.--> build dif forms of 1 wrd. (nerar-nearer-nearest). Dervi aff-to supply stem with components of lex m.--> form dif wrds.Ex:suff –y creates adj from N stems, but lex m. is dif (bushy- full of, stony-composed of). In the system of E wrds- hybrid wrds (wrds made up of elements derived from dif lang-s), based on 2 dif patterns: -foreign stem+native aff (color (Latin)+less), -native +foreign (drinkable). Compound wrd- consist of 2-3 stems, main quality- integrity. Subdivided: -endocentric, -exocentric. Endoc. char-zed by attrib relations within components- in a structure can distinguish a 1determinant & 2determinatum (1sun2set, 1door2bell). Exoc- sbj of idiomaticity, no logical center (killjoy). B\w 1 & 2 many semant relations exist: -functional (raincoat), -local (garden party- party in a garden), -comparison (gold fish), -temporal (night club), -sex denoting (she-goat). Debates about principles of differentiation b\w CW & phrase. aDif criteria (non-effective). Graphic c: if a wrd has a solid spelling-wrd, if a unit written separately- phrase. ?but we can spell diff-ly (ice-cream, ice cream). Phonological (Bloomfield): if a single stress- wrd, if a double stress- wrd-combination. ?but many wrds with double stress (self-control). Or the position of a stress may indicate 2 dif meanings (blackboard-compound, black board-w comb). Semantic (Jespersen, Kroisinger): if a unite- idiomatica compound (chatterbox), if not- w-comb (doorbell). Morphological: if no addit attrib can be added to a d-ntaCW (a very blackbird). C of transformation is used to define the degree of isiomaticity of a CW-non-idiom are easily transformed, idiomatic-not (toothpaste- paste for teeth). Classif-n acc to: Type of composition (1compound formed by juxtaposition of elements \sunset\, 2 with a vowel or cons as a linking element \speedometer\, 3with linking elements-prep, conj stems \son-in-law, up-to-date\). Structure (1 consis of simple stems \filmstar\, 2derived stems \chain-smoker\, 3 clipped stem \maths-mistress\, 4abbrev as a stem which is read as a full-stem \X-mas\, 5 1 of the components- compound stem \wastepaper basket\. PSp:1 compound N-N+N \sunbeam\, Vstem +N \looking glass\, Adj+N \blackboard\, V+postpositive \black out\. 2Comp Adj- Nstem +Adj stem \seasick\, Adj+Adj \red hot\, N+PrtI \peace-loving\, Adj+PrtI \hard-working\, N+PrtII \man-made\. Derivat compounds are based on some productive patterns. 1 set DC with –er \left-hander\, 2 set DC with –ed \kind-heated\. 1 may distinguish into 4 patterns: Nstem+Vstem+er= mill owner, N+N+er=honeymooner, Numeral stem +Nstem+er= first nighter, V+Adj+er= do-gooder. 2nd: Adj+N+ed= absentminded, Numeral+N+ed= one-eyed, N+N+ed=heart shaped.

Voc Paradigm. Vocab- syst formed by the sum total of all the wrds of the lang. debates about whether vocab is a system. 1) Paradigmatic (=in lang system)/ vertical relations- of 2 kinds: exterior and intertior. Exterior: relation b/w diff independent wrds, united by their meaning (synon-s, ant-s). Lexico-semantic groups(?) –same part of speech higher level than syn-s. ex: names of means of tranp-t. Interior: diff mean of one and the same polysem-c wrd (metaph,metonymy) 2)Syntagmatic (=in speech)-horizontal relations: relat-s b/w wrds in a certain stretch of speech and context. Context-min stretch of speech necessary and suffic-t to determine which the possible meanings is realized. Synt-c relat-ns are studied by means of contextual, distributional (combinatorial abilities of wrds) and transformational (transform of diff structures) analysis. 1) and 2) are interrelated.   Homonyms –wrds identical in sound & spelling (or in 1 aspect), but dif in meaning (bank=shore, bank=institution). H-accidental creations, source of humor. Single out: H proper- same in sound & spelling. Homophones- same in sound, dif in spelling (piece, peace). Homographs- same in spelling, dif in sound (tear {tea}v., tear {tie}n). Sources of H: 1 Phonetic changes-at 1st pronounced diff-lyadeveloped identical sound forms (night, knight\in OE k pronounced\). 2Borrowing-in a group rite,n-write,v-right,adj- 2,3 native orig, 1Latin. 3 W-building, conversion (same sound & spel, but refer to dif PSp, to comb-comb). 4 Shortening-type of w-building (fan=admirer,?from fanatic.Its homonym-Latin fan=device 4 cooling).5 Sound imitation- mew-sound, sea gull. !!!In all cases –accidentally,conversion-exception,(1 from the other)! 6 Originate form dif meaning of 1 wrd. Classif-n by Smirnitsky: 1full homonyms (wrds of the same category of PSp, have the same paradigm \when wrds r unchangeable\, match,n-game, short piece of wood. 2Partial h, 3 subgr: -Simple lex-gram partial h, belong to the same PSp, paradigms have 1 identical form (found,v, found,v –Past Ind), -Compl lex-gram partial h, dif PSp,1 identical form in paradigms (rose,n, rose Past ind.), - Partial lex h, same PSp, identical in corresponding forms (to hang- hung- hung, to hang- hanged- hanged).

Modes of Meaning Change (Spec, Gen, Metaph, Meton). The change of the semant structure of a wrd is a source of quality & quantitative develop of the voc. 4 types of semant change. 1Spec-n, investigated by Nikitin- a process when a wrd acquires a new meaning which is narrower logically in its reference to the basic meaning. Ex: Case- 1occurence, 2gram category, 3 instance of a disease. 1-general, others- specified. These are all cases- medical, juridical, gram. S-n, its denot change may be accompanied by connot modifications, which can be expressed in the process- amelioration & pejoration, they are socially determined. Amelior- queen=woman (midE)a female monarch, royal woman. Pejo-midE knave= boy, servant boy, rascal. S-n used in terminology: cell=biological cell, prison, room of monks. 2Gener-n- the meaning of a new notion is broader than that of the original. ’Ready’ in midE=ready for horse-riding, meant ‘ready for a ride’a ready, prepared for sth. (Ex:Gold=золото (gener), медаль (spec)). 3 In ling-cs- transform of meaning based on associations of similarity or on contiguity. Metaphor- a transfer of name based on the assoc of similarity, hidden comparison. Functional class-n: -poetic (a delicate rose), -linguistic\trite, if frequently used in a lang may loose its expressive form (leg of a table), -dead, when metaphorical basis has been lost. Semantic class-n: -met determined by the similarity of shape (a ball=short thick man), -simil of appearance (a flower- a beautiful woman), -simil of behavior (a tiger- brave), -simil of quality , -antropomorphical ( a needle-eye-ушко), -analogy b\w space & time (long speech), -transition of proper names into common (Vandals- 1germ tribes, 2who cause damage). 4 Metonymy- refer to one thing as if it were some other (read Shakespeare). Class-n: casual, local, temporal, attributal, synecdoche. These are general.  Within the 1 type patterns:-symmetric (committee –комитет, заседание комитета), -asymmetric, have only 1 way of realization, an action is used as a result of an action (investigation-исследование, объект исслед). Synecdoche- a part is substituted for a whole or a whole for a part (police \civil force, a man\ came to arrest him). Ling metaph & meton are diff from literary devices: 1 comparison is forgotten, no other name for a thing (foot of a mountain), 2- author’s imagination. Voc- flexible part of the lang. Causes of semant change:-Lling- influencing the process of voc adaptation may be of paradig and syntagmatic character; in dealing with them we have to do with the constant interaction and interdependence of voc units in lang. -Extraling.lang affected by social, polit, econom, cultural changes a changes in notions, influence the semant aspect of lang. (black box- term of aviation, unit the principle of action of which we don’t know).

Paradigm relations (Syn, Ant). SYN- imp expressive means, function- to represent same phenomenon in dif shades & variations. Problem of criteria. Conceptual criterion: S-wrds of the same category pf PSp conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in styl char-cs. Criticised-use of the term ‘concept’ makes it extraling definition. Semantic c.: suggests method of analys syn with the help of dictionary definitions (info from dict-s is analyzed comparatively). C of interchangeability: S-wrds which r interchangeable at least in some contexts. Criticised. Each S creates entirely new situation. a Dif to accept it as a criterion. If they r interch- useless in the voc. Wrds with half-erased connot, wh can be substituted 1 for another, but not totally interch. Classif-n: Vinogradov- 3 types- ideographic (convey same concept, dif in shades of m), -stylistic (dif in styl chara-cs), -absolute (coincide in all shades & styl char-cs). Absolute S- anomalous, temporaryavoc sys tends to get rid of them or develop differentiat char-cs. Term ‘shades of m’- vague. No rigid diff b\w syn differing in their shades & in styl char-cs. There are numerous syn which are distinguished by both shades & styl coloring. asubdivision into ideogr & styl- open to ?. There wrds wh are rude, too impolite a euphemisms. Dictated by social convention. Ex: lavatory= powder room, restroom, pregnancy= interesting condition, delicate condition, expecting. E.used to avoid social taboos. Oldest type of syn. Used long before the need to describe shades. In the Christian religion-devil became taboo=the prince of darkness, the evil one. Taboos connected with death- die=to pass away, ti kick the bucket, to join the silent majority. Mental disease- mad= insane, mentally unstable. Other source of S- borrowed from Fr, by means of all w-forming processes. ANT- wrds of the same lang, same PSp& same semant field, identical in style, buttheir denotative meanings render contrary notions. Contradictory- notions opposed & denying each other (alive-dead) if use ‘not’0semant equivalent. Contrary – opposed but they are gradable (love-liking-indifference- antipathy – hate). Class-n based on morph approach- absolute (right-wrong), -derivational (+ negative affix) happy-unhappy. Conversives- denote same situation as viewed from dif points. (buy-sell, give- receive). The substitution of a C doesn’t change the meaning, but necessary to make synt changes (He gave her flowers.- She received flowers from him). Homonyms –wrds identical in sound & spelling (or in 1 aspect), but dif in meaning (bank=shore, bank=institution). H-accidental creations, source of humor. Single out: H proper- same in sound & spelling. Homophones- same in sound, dif in spelling (piece, peace). Homographs- same in spelling, dif in sound (tear {tea}v., tear {tie}n). Sources of H: 1 Phonetic changes-at 1st pronounced diff-lyadeveloped identical sound forms (night, knight\in OE k pronounced\). 2Borrowing-in a group rite,n-write,v-right,adj- 2,3 native orig, 1Latin. 3 W-building, conversion (same sound & spel, but refer to dif PSp, to comb-comb). 4 Shortening-type of w-building (fan=admirer,?from fanatic.Its homonym-Latin fan=device 4 cooling).5 Sound imitation- mew-sound, sea gull. !!!In all cases –accidentally,conversion-exception,(1 from the other)! 6 Originate form dif meaning of 1 wrd. Classif-n by Smirnitsky: 1full homonyms (wrds of the same category of PSp, have the same paradigm \when wrds r unchangeable\, match,n-game, short piece of wood. 2Partial h, 3 subgr: -Simple lex-gram partial h, belong to the same PSp, paradigms have 1 identical form (found,v, found,v –Past Ind), -Compl lex-gram partial h, dif PSp,1 identical form in paradigms (rose,n, rose Past ind.), - Partial lex h, same PSp, identical in corresponding forms (to hang- hung- hung, to hang- hanged- hanged).


Ways of Replenishment (Neol, Abbrev, Borrowed). Being an adaptive sys the voc is constantly adjusting itself to the changing conditions of human commun-n. New notions appear, requiring new wrds to name them. New wrds, expressions or neologisms are created fro new things. Neologism- a newly coined wrd or phrase or a new meaning for an existing wrd. Problem- which wrds are considered to be new? The most rational point- N-wrds that appeared in the last years of the previous generation. Reasons for N origination: - polit changes, -the spere of law& police (lie-detector, plastid bomb), -science & technology, -innovations (fast-food). Way of forming N: - creating (sound imitation), -borrowing ( Fr, Germ, Spanish), -combining (affixation, w-composition). Prefixes: parapsychologist, documercial, psycholinguistic, intro, maxi, mini. Suffixes: drive-in, workaholic, eer, st. Compounding (rhyme c- brain-rain), Shortening (landing) strip. Abbrev-  w-ds formed from the initial letters of each of the parts of a phrasal term. 2 types: -Acronyms, a wrd-comb pronounced as a wrd, popular esp in polit & techn voc (NATO — the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, National Organisation for Women – NOW, homon to odinary wrd). – Alphabetisms, pronounced as a series of letters, retain correlation with prototype (B.B.C- the British Broadcasting Corporation, SOS).Specific type- represented by Lat abb which sometimes are not read as Lat w-ds but substituted by Eng equiv-s (id est-that is, exempli gratia- for ex). Graphical abb- symbol used instead of wrds in written engl, for economy of space (gvt- government, DC-district of Columb). -A specifically Eng pattern- the 1 element is a letter and 2- a complete w-d (A-bomb).The contracted form is monosem, its prototype- polysemy (prep=homework, preparation=getting ready with a homework, homework). Blends- formed by joining together 2 wrds. 2 types depending upon the prototype phrases with wh  they can be correlated: -Additive (consisting of complete stems (smoke+fog=smog, smoke +haze=smaze). –Restrictive (attrib phrase where the 1 element serves as modifier of the 2, cinematographic+ panorama= Cinerama). Borrowed- taken from another lang and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning acc to the standards of Eng. Came in dif times. Early Latin b-ngs, 1c BC (butter, chalk, kitchen). In 5c AD- a few Celtic w-ds penetrated (cradle, London). In 7c AD- christianisation, many religious terms from Latin (priest, nun). End 7c- mid 11c- Scandinavian w-ds: N (window, husband, law), Adj( ugly, weak), V (call, take, die). Scand w-ds are similar in pronunc with anglo-sax. Many scand w begin from sk- skill, skin, ski, skirt, sky. In 1066-Norman Conq, England- bilingual. Fr was official. Fr w-ds: -administrative, -military terms (army, officer), -educational (pupil, pencil, library), -w of everyday life (dinner, river, uncle). In Renaissance period- from Lat, Greek, connected with science (univer, professor), Italian (piano, opera, violin). 18-20c – the basis of w was dif due to colonial expansion: Indian (pundit), Arabic (sherbet), Chinese. Rus layers: -prerevolut (before 1917), vodka, valenkis, pelmenis, -sovietisms, preserve only rus meaning (polit-bureau, 5-year-plan), -perestroika period. Degree of assimilation depends on: -length of the period during wh the w has been used, -importance for commun-n, -frequency of usage. a3 groups: 1Completely assim- found in all layers of older assim-ed w, follow all phonetic, morph standards of Eng., take an active part in w-derivation, formation. 2Partly assim-a) not assim semant-ly as they denote notions peculiar to the country from wh came (sombrero, rouble), b) not assim gram-ly \crisis- crises\, c) not assim phonetically. 3Barbarisms- from other lang not assim in any way. Classified: foreign clothes, foreign titles (rajah), food & drink (vodka), transport. Criteris: strange pronunciation, spelling. Enter lasng in 2 ways- through oral & written speech. Types of assim: -phonet (when foreign sounds are replaced by the closest Eng sounds), -grammat (when loans acquire new gram paradigm), -Semant (preserve all the primary meanings.

American Engl. AE is essentially south-Engl standard of the 17-18c. Differs from Brit Eng in pronun, grammar, voc. Variants - regional varieties possessing a literary form. Dialects - varieties of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalised literary form.Integration of dif dialect. First settlers- from the south & east of Eng. In 18c- group of the Scottish came. Diff-es in A speech represented diff-ces of BE from the very beginning. With the development of the modern means of commun-n the lex diff-es b\w the 2 variants show a tendency to decrease. Am-sms penetrate into Standard Eng and Britishisms come to be widely used in Amer speech. 3 ,ain types of Amer pronun: East, Southern & Gen Am. Gen Am is the formal speech used by radio, TV, in scientific, business spheres. GenAm is wuite neutral variesty. Phonetic traits: {r} is more sonorous, {r} is dropped in the East Am pronunc. {t} disappear after {r}-certainly. {t} in position before {w} turns into glottal stop \tha(t) one\. Pronun of {hw} instead of {w}-which \hwich\. {h} is dropped- she loved (h)im. {j} is dropped after t, d, n, s, z- student. {sh} is turned into {zh} in final syllables of wrds on –ion (excursion). {?} simplified into {n}. {?} pronounced in ‘task’, ‘grass’. Grammar- ‘will’, ‘would’- universal indicators of future, diff-es in the system of irreg V (get-got- gotten). Voc acc to PSp: N-polit terms (dark horse), culture (cinemactor), military terms, slang-w, political slang (favourite son), economic slang (greenbacks), clothes (a flop). Verbs- literary, -slang.

Functional Styles. FS is a patterned variety of literary text characterized by the typification of its components, supra-phrasal units (SPU), in which the choice and arrangement of language media are presupposed by the purpose of commun-n. Belles-lettre, Publisitic, Newspaper, Scientific Prose, of Offic Doc-s. Stable system, but change from 1 period to another. Belles-lettres style, function - aesthetico-cognitive. Aim- to call aesthetic feelings of pleasure and promote cognitive process. It’s a term for three substyles - lang of poetry (verse), emotive prose (fiction), lang of drama. Linguistic fea­tures which of the belles-lettres style are: 1. Genuine imagery, achieved by purely ling devices. 2. The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, 3. A vocab which will reflect the author's personal attitude to things or phenomena. 4. an individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, 5. The introduction of the typical features of colloquial lang. Poetry, features: Rhythmic and phonetic  arrangement of the utterance, Syntax & semantics comply with the restrictions imposed by the rhythmic  pattern, Fresh, unexpected imagery. Emotive prose: the imagery is not so rich, combination of liter & colloq variants, spoken & written varieties (monologue, dialogue), the use of elements from other styles, detached constr,& other way of combining sent (gap-sent). Modes of narration: author’s narration, speech of the char, reported speech. Drama- lang of plays- dialogue, not the reproduction of norms of colloq lang. It is mainly  a stylized type of the spoken variety of  language (simple syntax, elliptical constructions.). Publicistic S. Sphere- mass media, aim- to influence publ opinion, to persuade. Features in common with scientif prose & emotive: logical synt structure, emotional appeal is achieved by the use of wds with emotive meaning, use of imagery.3 substyles: oratory, the essay, articles. Oratorical S, purpose- persuasion. Features: direct address to the audience, sometimes contractions (won’t), colloq wds, parallel constr, suspense (main idea is not said till the end), rhetorical quest, quest-in-the-nar (closer contact). Intonation. The essay. literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subjects. Touches the subject on the surface- doesn’t go very deep. Features: brevity of expression, the use of the first person singular, which shows a personal approach, a rather expanded use of connectives, which help the process of grasping the essence of ideas, emotive wds, similes and sustained metaphors. Article, all the features of publ style. But the type of magazine affects the choice of SDs. (in scientific-few emotive wrds). Polit magazine articles- bookish words, neologisms, traditional word-combinations, emphatic constructions and parenthesis are more frequent here than in newspaper articles. Newspaper S. Sphere: mass media restricted by press (lang of newsp & governmental magazines). Function: to inform. Aim: to comment, to inform of certain political, cultural, economic events; to influence the public opinion on political or other matter. Basic newsp features. a Headline- title, function- to inform briefly, short, catchy. Syntax: use of declarative, interrogative sent, elliptical sent. Editorial- leading article, comment on the event of the day. Purpose- to give the editor’s opinion. Appeal to mind & feelings (emotionally colored lang, colloq). Almost all Sds. Use allusion, periphrasis. Advertisements. Function-to inform. Attract attention by all means- graph, styl, synt, lex. Voc- neutral+ emotive wds. Voc of the newspaper writing- neutral, common lit. Features: spec polit & econ term \socialism\, non-term polit voc \unity, peace\, newsp cliche \pressing problem\, abbrev, neologisms. Gram peculiarities: complex sent, verbal constr. Scientific Prose. Sphere: science activity. Function: to give logical progress of some idea. Aim: to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts. Style: very objective, precise, unemotional. Features: logical sequence of utterance, use of terms specific to a branch, use of foot-notes, impersonality (use of passive constr). Style of Offic Doc-s. Sphere: business, jurisdiction. Function: instructive, regulative. Aim: to reach agreement between two parties. Substyles: commercial papers, diplomatic doc-s, legal doc-s, military doc-s. Peculiarities: cliche, terms, set expr by which each substyle can be recognized, abbrev, contractions (Gvt), use of wds in their dictionary meaning, no emotive wds. SYntact features: - compositional patterns of the variants of this style (in letters- heading with address, date, name of the addressee.- arrangement of utterance (the whole doc can be as 1 sent).























Lexico-Phras EM &SD. Dealing with s-cs we should use the term individual style that is indiv.manner of the author  to use lang.means to achieve the effect he desires, it is a combination of lang.units (EM and SD), peculiar to a given writer which makes his works easily recognizable. The EM of a lang are those phon, morph, word-building, lex, phraseol and syntac forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance. SD- conscious literary use of some of the facts of the lang, i.e the most essential structural & semant features of the lang forms are viewed as generalizations (carry additional info- emotive, logical). Words in context may acquire addition­al meanings not fixed in dictionaries -con­text meanings. Styl-cs helps to reveal interaction b\w lex & cont m. w\h of EM &SD. Metaphor- the application of a w\phrase to an object or concept it doesn’t literary mean (wing of the building, heart of the matter). Simult presence of images of both objects - the one which is actually named and the one which supplies its own "legal" name. The wider is the gap b\w the objects the more expressive M is. Classified acc to their degree of unexpectedness: absolutely unexpected – genuine (in poetry, emotive prose); trite/dead -commonly used in speech, sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means of l-ge (in newspaper articles, oratorical style, scientific l-ge)- 'a storm of indignation'. A dead M. can be refreshed by the context & given a 2nd life – sustained/prolonged M. TMs may regain their freshness through the process of prolongation of the M. Constant use -> the breaking up of the primary meaning, the metaphoric use of the w-d begins to affect the dictionary meaning, the dictionary meaning can entirely disappear. Than there is no SD. Metonymy –transfer of name of 1 obj into another to which it’s related. Based on association connecting the 2 concepts wh these meanings represent. (crown= king, queen. I read Shakespeare- his books). Association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent. Metonymy, while presenting one object to our mind, does not exclude the other (diff-ce with metaphor). M 'concerns concrete objects, which are generalized. Gen-n is -carried out with the definite or no article. Irony -a SD in which the words express a meaning that is often the direct opposite of the intended meaning. I- contradiction b\w the said and implied. Not confused with humor. I. expresses a feeling of irritation, pity, regret. (It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a$-acquires the opposite meaning, ‘unpleasant’). Interjection- words we use when we express our feelings, symbols of human emotions. Express the speaker’s attitude. !definite intonation! I have no sentence meaning if taken independently. May express various feelings - joy, delight, admiration, approval, disbelief, astonishment, sadness, blame, reproach, protest. Primary int-s generally have no logical meaning ( Ah Bah Pooh Hush Alas). De­rivative int-s may retain some of logical meaning, but suppressed by emotive meaning. 'God!', 'Come on!', 'dear!', 'God knows –exclamatory wrds. Emotive function. Epithet- a figure of speech denoting a temporary quality of a person, thing, or a phenomenon and characterizing it from the point of view of subjective perception. Classified from dif points: 1 Semant & 2 Structural. 1: -Associated with the N (point to a feature wh is essential to the obj), -Unassoc with the N (add a feature not inherent in it). 2: simple, compound, phrase and sentence ep-s. A reverse ep- composed of 2 N linked by of-phrase (the shadow of a smile). Language epithets as part of the emotional word-stock of the l-ge have a tendency to become obsolescent. Oxymoron - combination of 2 words in which the meanings of them are opposite in sense (pleasantly ugly, awfully nice). Models: adj+N, adj+adv. Antonomasia -the use of a proper name to express a general idea or the use of  a person’s name as a common N. A is intended to point out the leading char­acteristic feature of a person or event. In publicistic & belles-lettres style. (Don Juan). Interaction of logical & nominal meaning. SDs wh deal with the intensification of some features.--> Simile - the use of a word or a phrase for comparing 2 diff things in 2 or< aspects. The properties of an object may be viewed from different angles. (Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare). Human being are compared with the animals wh are supposed to bare partic qualities (sly as a fox). Formal elements: like, as, such as, as if, seem. !!!Comparison deals with the object of one class, to establish their degree of sameness. Periphrasis (=circumlocution)– the use of a longer phrasing in place of a shorter or a plainer form of expression. Aims at pointing to one of the seemingly insignificant or features or properties of the given object, and intensifies them. Ex: my better half (my wife). In newspaper lang,publ. Logical periphrasis is based on one of the inherent properties or perhaps a passing feature of the object described (the most pardonable of human weaknesses —'love'). Figurative periphrasis is based either on metaphor or on metonymy, the key-word of the collocation being the word used figuratively ('to tie the knot' ='to marry'). Euphemism – a figure of speech aimed at substituting a harsh word or expression by means of a milder. Ling peculi­arity- eu must call up a definite synonym in the mind of a person (to die = to pass away, to join the silent majority, to be gone). They are EM, not SD because they don’t call to mind the key-word or dominant of the group. Groups, acc to sphere: 1) religi­ous, 2) moral, 3) medical and 4) political (undernourishment). Aim- to express in a more deliberate manner, not to offend. If become closely associated with the object- give way to newly coined wds. Hyperbole- deliberate exaggeration of a feature essential to the object or phenom. Like SD may lose its qualitya unite of a lang-as-a-sys. (scared to death). Set expr-s wh have their peculiaritiesa Cliche - expression that has become hackneyed and trite. Not a stable w-combin, but w-combinations which have long lost their novelty and become trite, but which are used as if they were fresh and original. The process of being acknowledged as a unit of language is slow. It is next to impossible to foretell what may be accepted as a unit of l-g and what may be rejected. Used in press. Proverbs, Sayings- facts of lang. Dictionaries. A peculiar mode of utterance which is mainly characterized by its brevity. A proverb presupposes a simultaneous application of 2 meanings: the face-value of primary meaning and an extended meaning drawn from the context. Proverbs are brief statements showing the life experience of the community. Differ from ordinary utterance by semant aspect. Not lose freshness if use properly (a new broom sweeps clean). Epigram – SD akin to a proverb, but we know the author. Always have a literary-bookish character. Witty expr-s. (Keats- A thing of beauty is a joy forever.). Characteristic feature the sentence gets accepted as a w-combination and often becomes part of the language as a whole. Poetry is epigrammatic in essence. It always strives for brevity of expression. Allusion- an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact.Ppresupposes knowledge of the fact. No indication of the source is given (differences b/w quot & allusion). Linguistic fusions are set phrases, the meaning of which is understood only from the combination as a whole. The meaning of the whole cannot be derived from the meanings of the component parts. The stylistic device of decomposition of fused set phrases consists in making each word of the combination acquire its literal meaning which in many cases leads to absurdity (It was raining cats and dogs, and two kittens and a puppy landed on my window-sill).

Phonetic SD. Dealing with s-cs we should use the term individual style that is indiv.manner of the author  to use lang.means to achieve the effect he desires, it is a combination of lang.units (EM and SD), peculiar to a given writer which makes his works easily recognizable. The EM of a lang are those phon, morph, word-building, lex, phraseol and syntac forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance. SD- conscious literary use of some of the facts of the lang, i.e the most essential structural & semant features of the lang forms are viewed as generalizations (carry additional info- emotive, logical).Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature, by things, by people and by animals. 2 types: Direct O is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, cuckoo.Indirect O is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense (rustling of a curtain). Unlike alliteration, IO demands some mention of what makes the sound. Alliteration –SD wh aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence - lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds. In poetry. Does not bear any lexical or other meaning. Supports the author’s idea with some emotional atmosphere. . Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words. In verse - at the end of the lines. Tyoes: The full R presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable.  Incomplete R, 2 main groups: vowel rhymes and consonant rhymes. In vowel R the vowels of the syllables in words are identical, but the consonants may be different. Consonant rhymes – vice versa. Eye-rhyme, where the letters and not the sounds are identical (result of historical changes). Models: 1. couplets – when the last words of 2 successive lines are rhymed. 2. triple rhymes –aaa. 3. cross rhymes – abab. 4. framing or ring rhymes – abba. Internal rhyme -rhyming words are placed within the lines, breaks the line into 2 parts. aFunctions: dissevering and consolidating. Rhythm exists in all spheres of human activity. as SD is - combination of the ideal metrical scheme and the variations of it. It is a periodicity. Can find in prose where the unit of measure-not syllable, but a structure, w-conmb, sequence of wds. The peculiar property of prose rhythm is that it occurs only in relatively short spans of text. Prose rhythm, unlike verse rhythm, lacks consistency.

Styl Class-n of the Eng Voc. In order to get a more or less clear idea of the word-stock of any lang, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected. A special branch of linguistic science -lexicology-has done much to classify voc. The whole of the word-stock as being divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloq layer. The literary voc consists of the following groups: 1. common literary (in writ, polished sp); 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words. The colloquial voc: 1. com-mon "colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloq coinages. The common literary, neutral, common colloq wrds = standard Engl. voc. Neutral words, form the bulk of the Engl voc, are used in both literary and colloq lang., source of synonymy and polysemy. Cannot be considered as having a special stylistic colouring. Common literary words are mainly used in writing and in polished speech. A term is generally very easily coined and easily accepted. Feature of a term is its direct relevance to the set of terms used in a particular science, directly connected with the concept it denotes. Belong to the style of lang of science. Also -in newspaper style, in publicistic and other. If used in the belles-lettres style- become a SD, is used in such a way that 2 meanings are materialized simultaneously. Function of terms is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose lang would naturally contain special words and expressions. Many words lost their quality as terms a passed into the common literary voc, process of "de-terminization". (Ex 'radio', 'television'). Poetic - are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words, aim at producing an elevated effect, don’t easily yield to polysemy. Used to evoke emotive meanings. Through constant repetition gradually becomes hackneyed, fail to evoke an aesthetic effect. Poetic wrds are not freely built.The commonest means is by compounding (ex: young-eyed). Can be understandable only to a limited number of readers. Archaisms.  . Words change their meaning and sometimes drop out of the lang, disappear leaving no trace of their existence. Come across A., 3 stages in the aging process of wrds: 1 obsolescent- w becomes rarely used, gradually passing out of general use, morph forms belong to this category (pronouns thou and its forms thee, thy and thine, fr loans – garniture>furniture). 2 obsolete- have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized (methinks (=it seems to me). 3 archaic proper- no longer recognizable in ModE, were in use in OE. The boarder lines- not distinct. Historical w- notions of some obj of bygone period, remain as terms, have no syn, while archaic have. Archaic used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels.Function of A in official doc-s is terminological in character. A create elevated effect. Barbarisms- words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into Engl. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms (chic=stylish). Distinguish B & foreign w. B became fact of the Eng lang, foreign don’t belong, not registered in Eng dictionaries. In printed works- foreign are italicized to show alien nature. Aims of B & foreign- to supply local colour, to build up a SD of the speech. Often used in the belles-lettres and the publicistic style. B is a Sd if it displays interaction b\w dif meanings. Lit coinages (+Nonce-w). =neologisms. Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. the need to designate new concepts. Terminological coinages. Styl coinages- when creators seek expressive utte­rance. Appear in the publicistic style- newspaper headlines. Many coinages disappear, others leave traces in the voc because they are fixed in the literature of their time. Most of the literary-bookish coinages are built by means of affix­ation ('gangdom') and word compounding. Also conversion, derivation and change of meaning, used to coin new terms in which new mean­ings are imposed on old words. The blending of two words into one- cinemactress (cinema+actress), smog- (smoke+ fog).  Nonce-word, i.e. a word coined to suit one particular occasion. Used to designate evaluation of a thing, but generally drop out of the lang (was wived, uncled, cousined). New wrds may be coined by means of contraction & abbrev. (TRUD =time remaining until dive). Slang (rot=nonsense, the cat’s pyjamas=the correct thing).- lang of a highly colloq type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new wrds or of current wrds used in some special sense. Any new coinage that hasn’t gained recognition & hasn’t yet been received into standard Engl is branded as slang. Many slang w-s have now become units of standard E. (word kid (=child)- 19c low slang, now a colloq unit of the E/ literary l-ge). Feature: it never grows stale, otherwise is replaced by a new slangism. It is suggested that the term 'slang' should be used for those forms of the E. voc-ry which are either mispronounced or distorted in some way phonet-ly, morph-ly or lex-ly. Slang stands above all the laws of grammar. Though it is regarded by some purists as a l-ge that stands below standard E., it is highly praised nowadays as "vivid", "more flexible", "more picturesque", "richer in vocabulary" and so on. In the non-literary voc-ry - jargonisms.-exist in almost every l-ge and, aim is to preserve secrecy within some social group. J are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. The traditional meaning of the words is immaterial, only the new, improvised meaning is of importance. Most of the J are incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. J-ms are social in character. Not regional. Almost any social group of people has its own jargon ( jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as cant; the jargon of jazz people; the jargon of the army=military slang; the jargon of sportsmen). Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation. It is not a secret code, is easily understood but regarded as something not quite regular. J & slang differ from ordinary lang mainly in their voc (structure of the sent-s & morphology- unchanged). Smt j-ms migrate into other social groups and smt become recognized in the lit lang. Professionalisms are the words used in a definite profession or by ppl connect-ed by common. They commonly indicate some working process. Prof-s are correlated to terms. Terms are coined to nominate new concepts that appear in the process of, and as a result of, technical progress and the development of science. Prof-s are special words in the non-literary layer of the E. voc-ry, whereas terms belong to the literary layer of words. Terms are well-known to ordinary people and enter the neutral layer of the voc-ry. Prof-s generally remain in circulation within a definite community, as they are linked to a common occupation and common social interests. Like terms, prof-s do not allow any polysemy, they are monosemantic. Prof-s should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang words, prof-s do not aim at secrecy. Prof-s are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character. Dialectal wrds- which in the process of integration of the Engl nat lan­g remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is gener­ally confined to a definite locality. From Scot & northern dialects. Southern d, used in liter for styl purpose. Dw are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other styles, function- to charac personalities through speech. Dw unlike profess-ms, are confined in their use to a definite locality. Vulgarisms- expressions of an abusive character (damn, goddam). Used in conversation out of habit. V will never acquire the status of standard Eng voc, and will remain on the outskirts. Function is (almost the same as that of interjections) to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger. Can be found only in emotive prose, in the direct speech of the char-rs. Colloq coinages (nonce wds) - unlike those of a literary-bookish character, are spontaneous. Not all are fixed in dictionaries. Built not by affixation (like liter coinages), but based on semant change in wds (can be revealed through styl anal). One hardly notices the process leading to the appearance of a new meaning. Because they are not new words but new meanings of existing words. (Sophisticated= wisea oversubtleaadulterateda corrupted). Cause- ironic touch? Can be built with the help of aff, but few of them. Nonce-coinage appears in all spheres of life.

Prosody and Intonation. Intonation is a language universal. But intonation functions in various languages in different way. 3 prosodic components of intonation, i.e. pitch, loudness and tempo. Pitch- frequency of the vibration of the vocal cords. Loudness - the amplitude of vibrations. Tempo- time during which a speech unit lasts.  Each syllable of the speech chain has a special pitch colouring. Some of the syllables have significant moves of tone up and down. Each syllable bears a definite amount of loudness. Pitch movements are connected with loudness. An intonation pattern contains 1 nucleus and may contain other un\stressed syllables preceding or following the nucleus. The boundaries of an intonation pattern may be marked by stops of phonation (temporal pauses). The syntagma is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complete. Actualized syntagmas are called intonation groups. Each intonation group may consist of one or more potential syntagms. The # of intonation groups depends on the length of the phrase and the degree of semantic importance or emphasis given to various parts of it. Pitch parameters - the distinct variations in the direction of pitch, pitch level and pitch range. Pitch changes should be viewed together with the variations of loudness (2nd component of intonation), because it’s not possible to separate pitch and loudness in creating the effect of accentuation. Pitch-and-stress structure of the intonation pattern. Not all stressed syllables are of equal importance. One has the greater prominence than the others and forms the nucleus. Formally the nucleus is a strongly stressed syl which is generally the last strongly accented syl of an intonation pattern and which marks a significant change of pitch direction, that is where the pitch goes up or down.Nuclear tones- L-F, H-F, L-R, H-R, F-R. Falling tone expresses "certainty", "completeness". Rising- "uncertainty", "incompleteness", polite denials, commands, invitations, greetings. Falling-rising tone consists of a fall in pitch followed by a rise. Low-Level tone is very characteristic of reading poetry. Mid-Level is common in spontaneous speech. The tone of a nucleus determines the pitch of the rest of the intonation pattern following it which is called the tail. aafter a falling tone, the rest of the intonation pattern is at a low pitch. After a rising tone- upward pitch direction. (No, Mary -Well, Mary). Other sections of the intonation pattern are the head and the pre-head which form the prenuclear part of the intonation pattern. Minimally in inton pattern- nucleus, maximally- the head, the pre-head and the tail. Two more pitch parameters -are pitch ranges and pitch levels. Variations in pitch range occur within the normal range of the human voice, i.e. within its upper and lower limits (normal, wide, narrow). The pitch range is the interval between the highest-pitched and the lowest-pitched syllables. Pitch levels may be high, medium and low. Pausation of speech can be normal, slow and fast. The parts of the utterance which are particularly important sound slower. Unimportant parts are commonly pronounced at a greater speed than normal (She thinks him to be an ordinary computer nerd). Intonation- a complex unity of sentense stress tempo, speech melody and voice tembre. Functionally, there may be distinguished syntactic, emphatic and hesitation pauses. Syntactic pauses separate Intonation groups. Emphatic - to make especially prominent certain parts of the utterance. Hesitation pauses are mainly used in spontaneous speech (to gain time). The communicative function of intonation is realized in various ways: to structure the information content of a textual unit, To determine the speech function of a phrase (statement, question, command),  To convey connotational meanings of "attitude: (surprise, sarcasm, sincerity), To structure a text (delimitates it into smaller units), To differentiate the meaning of the same gram structure, To characterize a particular style or variety of oral speech (styl function).

Synt SD. Dealing with s-cs we should use the term individual style that is indiv.manner of the author  to use lang.means to achieve the effect he desires, it is a combination of lang.units (EM and SD), peculiar to a given writer which makes his works easily recognizable. The EM of a lang are those phon, morph, word-building, lex, phraseol and syntac forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and/or emotional intensification of the utterance. SD- conscious literary use of some of the facts of the lang, i.e the most essential structural & semant features of the lang forms are viewed as generalizations (carry additional info- emotive, logical). A number of SD wh express the relations b\w wds, w-comb, sent & utterances. Supra-Phrasal Unit (SPU)- a larger unti than a sent. A # of sentences interdependent structurally (by means of connectives, linkings) and semant-ly. While a sent may express only part of 1 idea. Any SPU will lose its unity if it suffers breaking. Aim- to produce impact. In belles-lettre & poetical style. Paragraph- group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end. A certain arrangement of thought. Built not only on the logical principle. Style of official documents – the P. building depends on forms of the doc-s. Belle-letter & publicistic styles – affected by the purpot of the author. Developed - from the general to the particular, - from cause to effect & vice versa. Has a topic sentence, a s. which embodies the main idea- key-sent. Inversion- SD in wh the direct word order is changed either completely so that the predicate precedes the subject (complete inversion), or partially so that the object precedes the subject-predicate pair (partial inversion). Aim at attaching addit emot coloring to the meaning of the utterance. Patterns: -obj\ adv modif at the beginning, predicative before the sbj. Many rearrangements. Form of emphatic constr. Detached Constr. – a placing of a secondary part in a special position some specific consideration of the writer so that it seems formally independent. Quality  - the isolated parts are placed in  position that makes the phrase seem independent. Remains secondary, but structurally it possesses all the features of a primary member. A variant of DC is parenthesis( qualifying explanatory phrase). Parallel Constr- SD the necessary condition of wh is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in 2 or more s-ces. Often backed up by repetition of wds (lexical) & prep-s. PC is most frequently used in enumeration, antithesis & in climax. The device always generates rhythm. Chiasmus (reversed PC)- based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of w-ds & phrases. The word-order of one of the s-ces being inverted as compared with that of the other. Can be achieved by a sudden change from active voice to passive or vice versa. It lays stress on the 2nd part of the utterance, which is opposite in structure. Contributes to the rhythmical quality of the utterance.  Repetition is an EM used when the speaker is under the stress of strong emotion. Aims at logical emphasis, to stress the attention. Types. If the repeated word (phrase) comes at the beginning of 2 or more s-cs, clauses or phrases= anaphora. If the repeated unit is placed at the end of s-ces, clauses or phrases, = epiphora. Framing= the initial parts of a syntactic unit, in most cases of a paragraph, are repeated at the end of it. Linking or reduplication- the last word or phrase of one part of the utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next part, thus hooking the 2 parts together.oot-repetition= repet of the same idea using synonyms. Enumeration-  SD by wh separate things, objects, phenomena, properties, actions are named one by one so that thy produce a chain. E-n can be heterogeneous as well, when words in a string result in a kind of clash Used to depict a scenery. Suspense- device which consists in arranging the matter of communication in such a way that the less important parts are placed at the beginning, the main idea is withheld till the end of the s-ce. The reader’s attention is held & his interest kept up. Favoured by orators. Intonation. Climax. - an arrangement of s-ces which secures a gradual increase in significance or emot tension in the utterance. Maintained in 3 ways: logical (based on the relative importance of the component parts), emotional (produced by words with emotive m-ing )& quantitative increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts). Antithesis- a styl opposition, based on relative opposition which arises out of the context. Is found in parallel constr. !!! Contrast is a literary (not a linguistic) device based on logical opposition b/w the phenomena. Asyndeton- deliberate omission of the connective where it is a generally expected. Polysyndeton- SD of connecting s-ces, or phrases, or syntagms, or words by using connectives. Utterance- more rhythmical. Unlike enum-n it causes each member to stand out conspicuously. Shows things isolated. Peculiar type of connection – Gap-sent Link (GSL). –connection isn’t apparent, need mental effort to bridge semantic gap. GSL is generally indicated by AND or BUT. Often used in represented speech. Functions: to signal the introduction of inner repres speech; to indicate a subjective evaluation of facts; introduce an effect resulting from a cause which has already been expressed. The cases of the particular use of colloq constr a Ellipsis – omission from a construction of one or more words which are obviously understood but should be supplied to make the expression gram-ly complete. E imitates the common features of colloq l-ge when some members of a sent are absent. Being the property of colloq l-ge doesn’t express what can easily be supplied by the situation. Break-in the-Narrative (Aposiopesis) a sudden breaking off in speech witout completing a thought as if a speaker was unable  or unwilling to state what  was in his/her mind. In spoken-caused by unwillingness to proceed or uncertainty (!intonation- key to decoding), in written- for a styl effect, to convey to the reader a very strong increase of emotions. Question-in-the-narrative changes the real nature of a q-n & turns it into a stylistic device. A q-n in the nar is asked & answered by one & the same person., usually by the author. The q-ns asked unlike rhetorical q-ns do not contain statements. Smt q-in-the-nar gives the impression of an intimate talk b/w the writer & the reader. Represented speech.3 ways of reproducing actual speech: a) repetition of the exact utterance -(direct sp); b) conversion of the exact - (indirect); c) representation of the actual utterance by a second person-represented sp). 2 types: uttered represented speech -representation of the actual utterance through the author’s l-ge (demands that the tense should be switched from present to past, the personal prns from 1st &2nd to 3rd person, synt structure of the utterance doesn’t change, in the belles-lettres style, newspaper),  unuttered (inner )- the representation of the thoughts & feelings of the character (abounds in excl.words & phrases, elliptical constr-ns, breaks & other means of conveying feelings, The tense forms are shifted to the past, 1st & the 2nd person prns). SD wh perform transference of struct.m-ing aRhetorical Q –a question not intended to draw an answer, but used for rhetorical effect. No longer a q-n but a statement expressed in the form of an interrogative s-ce. An additional shade of m-ing implied in them: smt doubt, suggestion. !!!Both the q-n m-ing & the statement m-ing are materialized with an emotional charge- intonation is important.

Litotes –a figure of speech in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of its contrary as inhe is not a fool. this positive m-ing is diminished in quality as compared with a synonymous positive expression. The negatives NO & NOT are more emphatically pronounced than in ordinary negative s-ces. Depends on intonation. A variant of litotes is a constr-n with 2 negations, as in ‘not unlike. Stronger impact upon the reader. Used in different styles of speech excluding official style & scientific prose.

Bristish English. Regional Varieties and RP. Changes in RP

A national language has two material forms – written (the literary language) and spoken (the speech of the nation). The written form is usually a generally accepted standard and is the same throughout the country. But spoken language may vary from locality to locality. Such distinct forms of a language are called dialects. They may differ from one another in grammar, in vocabulary and in pronunciation. Different types of pronunciation of a language may differ in the inventory of their phonemes, i.e. they may have phonemes not found in other dialects. Besides, the distribution of those sounds which are common to all the dialects may also differ. There are dialectal variations in the position of word accent and in intonation.

Thanks to economic, political and social factors one of the local dialects becomes the literary language of the country, and the pronunciation of this dialect becomes the orthoepic standard, whereas the pronunciation of the other dialects begins to be regarded as substandard. But within the standard pronunciation of a language there may be variants, too, considered equally correct.

A language which is  the mother tongue of more than one nation, also has national variants, or types, of pronunciation. As the result of the colonial expansion of Britain, the English language spread to all the continents of the earth, and today all the English-speaking nations have their own standard variants of English pronunciation which, in their turn, may have educated regional and uneducated local types of pronunciation.

In the British Isles there are three large regional types English: Southern English Pronunciation (RP), Northern English Pronunciation and Standard Scottish Pronunciation.

The term Southern English is indicative only of the birthplace of this type and does not mean that it is confined nowadays only to the South of England. For reasons of politics, commerce and the presence of the court the pronunciation of the south-east of England, and particularly that of London, began to acquire in the 16th c. It was finally fixed as the speech of the educated through the stabilizing influence of the public schools of the 19th c such as Eton and Harrow. athe name Public School Pronunciation. a soon spread throughout the country. With the spread of education the situation arose in which the dialect-speaking schoolchildren and university students who were eager for social advancement felt obliged to acquire this type of pronunciation. a the term Received Pronunciation, introduced by D. Jones. RP is a marker of position in society. Contemporary RP is not homogeneous and is represented by 3 types: the conservative RP used by the older generation and by certain profession or social groups; the general RP forms, most commonly in use by the BBC; the advanced RP forms favoured by the young people, mostly of the upper classes, for prestige value. Considerable changes are observed in the sound system of ModE . 1) a tendency for some diphthongs to become smoothed out and shorter and more like pure vowels: [ei] – [e], [au?] – [a?], [ai?] – [a?]. But: [i?] – [i^]. 2) ? > a (have) 5) [sju:] > [su:] in suit, super; word-internally [j] tends to be retained 6) tendency for short vowels to be lengthened (his, is); [i] lengthened in the final syllable: very, many; 7) loss of initial [h] in he, his etc. in fluent speech 8) loss of final [?] in writing [raitin] 10) palatalised final [k'] in week etc. 11) linking and intrusive [r]

12) tj, dj, sj > t?, dg, ?: issue [isju:] > [i?u:].

Northern English is the speech of those who wer born and brought up in the region between Birmingham and the border of Scotland. The main difference from RP is in the use of vowels: 1 bad [bad], man [man], 2 glass [gl?s], ask [?sk] – before a word-final consonant or two consonants other than [r], 3 cup [kup], love [luv], much [mut?] 4 [e] or [?:] in may, take.

Northern English represents the earlier type of London speech that was the standard in the 16th, 17th, early 18th centuries and was carried to America.

Standard English of Scotland is considerably modified by Southern British, but some of its features go back independently to the Northumbrian dialect of the Anglo-Saxon tongue. It is different from RP both in the inventory of phonemes and their distribution: 1 rolled, trilled [r] (as in Russian) in all positions – more [mor], born [born], 2 dark [l] in all positions, 3 medio-lingual palatal [c] - light [lict] (as in German), 4 [hw] in which etc. 5 bad [bad], man [man] 6 glass, dance, path, after – [?],  7 monophthongs + r instead of  diphthongs – here [hir], beard, pure, sure, poor.

Main Trends in Phoneme Theory. Speech –a complex bunch of events. Stages: psychological, physiological,  articulatory, acoustic, auditory. Phonetics is the science which is concerned with the human noises: the nature of the noises, their combinations and their relation to the meaning. Phonetics: sound system of the l-ge (its segmental phonemes), word stress, syllabic structure, intonation. Phonology studies how the l-ge acts in the process of communication. Бодуэн started the studies of phoneme theory (PT) a Scherba contributed a lot: In actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of. In every language these sounds are united in a  small # of sound types, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and form of words. They serve the purpose of social intercourse. These are phonemes- functional, Material and abstract unit. Vasilyev- phoneme is a dialectal unit of these aspects because they determine one another and are interdependent. The segmental phoneme is the smallest lang unit (sound type) that exists in the speech. The segmental phoneme is the smallest (further indivisible into smaller segments) language unit (sound type) that exists in the speech. Allophones are instances, realizations of phonemes in real speech. Types: principal (or typical= free from the influence of the neighboring sounds) and subsidiary (-combinatoric \assimilation, adaptation..\ and - positional \initial, at the end of the word etc.\). 

Phones are modified by phonostylistic, dialectal and individual factors. Allophones of each phoneme possess some distinctive features, that make this phoneme functionally different from all other phoneme. This functionally relevant bundle of articulatory features is called the invariant of the Phoneme. Invariant is formed by the properties of a phoneme. Subsidiary: 1.positional sounds which happen only in clearly defined position (lip-bill, leaf-pool. clear-dark) 2. combinatory - combinations of sounds - that is assimilation, adoptation as a reasult some sounds drop out. Aspect of phoneme: 1) functional – it helps to distinguish the meaning. 2) material – speech sound is the material from which the language is made. 3) abstract (and generalized)- the speakers abstract themselves from the differences; all the differences are generalized in one phoneme. Main Trends in PT: 1 Psychological point of view- regard a phoneme as a mental image or target at which the speaker aims.(Бодуэн+ Щерба, Сепир). 2 Fuctional (N.Trubetskoy, R.Jakobson– Пражский кружок) Ph is a minimal sound unit by which meanings may be differentiated without much regard to actually pronounced sounds (allophones are not taken into consideration). Within functional - abstract point of view (it’s stronger)( Copenhagen ling circle L.Hjelmslev,Шаумян, Трубецкой, Якобсон) – ph-s are absolutely independent of articulatory and acoustic properties which are associated with them. 3 Physical?) (D.Jones, B.Block, J.Trager ) Ph- is a “family” of related sounds, satisfying certain conditions: 1) the various members of the family must show some phonetic similarity to one another; 2) no member of the family may occur in the same phonetic context as any other. I. Distributional M. – very seldom they apply to the help of the informant. (pin bin sin win p-b-s-w, pi:k-spi:k). 2 laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution: 1. allophones of different phonemes occur in the same phonetic context 2. allophones of the same phonemes never occur in the same  1st conclusion: if more or less different sounds occur in the same phonetic context they should be allophones of different phonemes (their distribution is contrastive) 2nd conclusion: if more or less similar sounds occur in different positions and never occur in the same phonetic context they are allophones of one and the same phoneme (their distribution is complementary). Different types of oppositions: 1. if members of the opposition differ in 1 feature, the opposition is set to be single (pen/ben – occlusive, labio-labial, voiceless/voiced) 2. if 2 features – double (pen/den – occlusive, labial/forelingual, voiceless/voiced) 3. 3 features – triple (pen/then – occlusive/contrastive, labial/interdental, voiceless/voiced) . Speaking about opposition we should also keep in mind the phenomenon of neutralization. N. – distribution of phonemes of those particular words and their grammatical form in which the phonemes lose the distinctive function because of N. N. – the loss by one of the members of opposition one of its distinctive features. (коса-коза, но! кос-коз, на конце в обоих случаях с).

 



 


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


  Sentence definitions. Problem of definition. The German scholars to summarize all the definitions > 301 (gave up). 6 groups: 1. Log defini

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